Context:
Rare-earth elements (REEs) have emerged as strategic materials critical for green technologies, advanced electronics, defence systems, and high-tech manufacturing. Growing demand for clean energy and digital devices, combined with China’s dominance in refining, has made REEs a major geopolitical and economic concern.
Key Highlights:
What Are Rare-Earth Elements (REEs)?
-
A group of 17 metallic elements comprising:
-
15 lanthanides (atomic numbers 57–71)
-
Scandium and Yttrium
-
-
Known for unique electrical, magnetic, and optical properties.
-
The term “rare earth” is historical, referring to their oxide forms, not actual scarcity.
Scientific Properties
-
Presence of localized 4f electrons gives rise to:
-
Strong magnetic moments
-
High magnetocrystalline anisotropy
-
Stability in permanent magnets
-
-
These properties make REEs indispensable for miniaturised, high-efficiency devices.
Key Applications
-
Neodymium–Iron–Boron (NdFeB) magnets:
-
Used in electric vehicle motors, wind turbines, and generators.
-
-
Phosphors:
-
Europium, Terbium used in LED lighting and display screens.
-
-
Lasers & Optics:
-
Neodymium, Erbium used in lasers, fibre optics, and medical devices.
-
-
Catalysts & Electronics:
-
Used in petroleum refining, smartphones, and defence technologies.
-
Extraction and Processing Challenges
-
REEs are geologically dispersed and occur together.
-
Separation is difficult due to similar chemical behaviour.
-
Processing stages include:
-
Mining → Beneficiation → Chemical cracking → Leaching → Solvent extraction
-
-
Solvent extraction is crucial for isolating individual elements.
Environmental Concerns
-
Generation of radioactive waste (thorium and uranium).
-
Use of hazardous acids and bases.
-
High environmental and regulatory costs discourage mining outside China.
Global Supply Chain Dynamics
-
China dominates:
-
91% of global REE refining
-
94% of magnet production
-
-
Holds 44 million tonnes out of 90+ million tonnes of global reserves.
-
Japan plans to extract REE-rich seabed mud near Minamitori Island (2026).
-
Other countries are investing in domestic refining and magnet-making capacity.
Relevant Prelims Points:
-
Issue: Strategic importance of rare-earth elements.
-
Causes of Demand Surge:
-
Green energy transition
-
EVs, electronics, defence applications
-
-
Government/Global Initiatives:
-
Supply chain diversification
-
Strategic mineral partnerships
-
-
Benefits:
-
Enables clean energy and advanced manufacturing
-
-
Challenges:
-
Environmental damage
-
Technological complexity
-
Overdependence on China
-
-
Impact:
-
Supply disruptions affect global manufacturing and energy security.
-
Relevant Mains Points:
-
Key Definitions & Concepts:
-
Lanthanides: 15 metallic elements with atomic numbers 57–71.
-
Phosphors: Light-emitting substances incorporating REEs.
-
Magnetocrystalline anisotropy: Crystal-aligned magnetic stability.
-
Solvent extraction: Separation technique for individual REEs.
-
-
Economic & Strategic Dimensions:
-
REEs as critical minerals for economic competitiveness.
-
Supply chain concentration creates strategic vulnerabilities.
-
-
Science & Technology Linkages:
-
Foundation of renewable energy technologies.
-
Enables miniaturisation and efficiency in electronics.
-
-
Way Forward:
-
Develop environmentally sustainable mining.
-
Invest in refining and recycling technologies.
-
Promote international cooperation and strategic stockpiles.
-
UPSC Relevance (GS-wise):
-
GS Paper III – Science & Technology: Critical minerals, advanced materials.
-
GS Paper III – Economy: Strategic resources, global supply chains.
-
Prelims: Definitions, applications, and geopolitical relevance