GS 1 – HISTORY
Context:
PM Modi Gangaikonda Cholapuram visit: Prime Minister Narendra Modi on Sunday (July 27) offered prayers at the ancient Shiva temple of Gangaikonda Cholapuram in Tamil Nadu.
Chronology
- Early Cholas: Sangam period (circa 3rd century BCE – 3rd century CE)
- Medieval/Imperial Cholas (main focus for UPSC):
Founded by Vijayalaya Chola (c. 850 CE), peak under Rajaraja I and Rajendra I - Decline: Begins in 12th century, falls around 1279 CE (Pandya conquest)
GEOGRAPHY
Core Region: Present-day Tamil Nadu (mainly Thanjavur and Tiruchirapalli districts)
Extent at Peak:
- South: Up to Sri Lanka
- North: Up to Ganges (Bengal) under Rajendra I
- Overseas: Controlled parts of Maldives, Sri Lanka, Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra
POLITICAL HISTORY
Founding & Consolidation
- Vijayalaya Chola (c. 850 CE):
- Captured Thanjavur from Muttaraiyar chiefs
- Marked beginning of Imperial Chola rule
Notable Kings
- Aditya I (871–907 CE)
- Defeated Pallavas and Pandyas
- Laid base for expansion
- Parantaka I (907–955 CE)
- Won against Pandyas; attempted northern expansion
- Defeated by Rashtrakutas in the Battle of Takkolam (949 CE)
- Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE) – Greatest ruler
- Expanded empire south (Sri Lanka), west (Malabar), and north
- Built Brihadeshwara Temple (Thanjavur)
- Reorganized administration and revenue system
- Rajendra I (1014–1044 CE)
- Continued conquests: Gangaikonda Chola title
- Northern expedition to Ganges
- Naval expeditions to Sri Lanka, Srivijaya (Sumatra, Malay Peninsula)
- Kulottunga I (1070–1120 CE)
- Unified Eastern Chalukya and Chola line
- Maintained stability and trade
Decline
- Began in 12th century under weak rulers
- Pandya resurgence, Hoysala conflict
- Cholas fell to Pandya king Maravarman Sundara Pandyan by 1279 CE
ADMINISTRATION
Central Administration
- King = divine status (God’s representative)
- Council of ministers (Perundaram, Sirutharam)
- King issued royal orders (tiruvakya-kelvi)
Provincial Administration
- Empire divided into mandalams → valanadus → nadus → urs
- Governors appointed by king
Local Self-Government
Unique feature of Chola rule
- Village assemblies (Sabhas) for Brahmin villages; Ur for non-Brahmin
- Nadu = cluster of villages; had administrative & judicial roles
- Uttaramerur inscriptions detail election of local officials through Kudavolai system (lot-drawing from eligible names)
ECONOMY
Agriculture
Irrigation developed: tanks, canals
Kaveri delta = Granary of South India
Trade
- Inland and maritime trade flourished
- Major ports: Nagapattinam, Kaveripattinam
- Trade with China, Srivijaya, Arab world
- Exported: spices, textiles, pearls
Revenue System
- Land revenue = major source
- Measured land, classified by fertility
- Taxes collected by local sabhas
RELIGION & CULTURE
Religion
- Primarily Shaivism, but Vaishnavism, Jainism, Buddhism also existed
- Patronized temples as religious and economic centers
Art & Architecture
Temple Architecture (Dravidian style)
- Rajaraja I – Brihadeshwara Temple (Thanjavur)
- Rajendra I – Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple
- Granite, Vimana (tower), Mandapa, Garbhagriha
Bronze Sculpture
- World-renowned Chola bronzes: Nataraja, Shiva, Parvati
- Lost-wax technique used
Literature
- Tamil literature flourished
- Devotional works: Nayanmars (Shaiva), Alvars (Vaishnava)
- Kamban – Kambaramayanam
- Bhakti movement strengthened
MILITARY
- Large standing army and strong navy
- Naval expeditions: Bay of Bengal dominance
- Well-organized infantry, cavalry, elephants
- Military governed by kadagams (army units)
FOREIGN RELATIONS
Aggressive overseas campaigns
- Rajendra I invaded Srivijaya to control maritime trade routes
- Diplomatic missions to China (Song dynasty)
- Trade, culture spread to SE Asia (e.g., temple influence in Cambodia, Indonesia)
INSCRIPTIONS & SOURCES
- Copper plates (e.g., Thiruvalangadu, Leiden) – genealogies, grants
- Stone inscriptions – temple walls, administrative details
- Uttaramerur Inscriptions – local self-government
- Foreign accounts: Arab & Chinese travelers
LEGACY
- Model village administration and local self-governance
- Glorious period for Tamil culture, temple architecture, sculpture
- Pioneered maritime imperialism in Indian history
- Cultural influence across Southeast Asia